Dealing with Problem Cats in Your Neighborhood... a UK Perspective

Hello there guys!

Just thought I would post about this because many people have problems with pesky cats in their neighborhood, and I see the same responses on the internet again and again. The problem is that many of these responses are written by people from the USA, and many of the solutions they propose are actually illegal in the UK. If you are resident in the UK, and you take their advice, you could end up being sued, being fined heavily, or worse. Therefore, I thought I should explain the legal status of cats in the UK, and discuss legal solutions for your problems.

The Legal Status of Cats

The legal status of British cats is an interesting one. In order to fully understand it, we have to go back to 1926, and the legal case of Buckle vs Holmes. Buckle was a pigeon fancier, who lived next door to Holmes. Holmes had a cat who, over a period of time, killed several of Buckle's birds. Buckle then sued Holmes for the cost of 13 homing pigeons and 2 bantams. Now, at first glance, this appeared to be an easy case to solve. Buckle had actually seen the cat catch one of the birds, and Holmes did not deny that the killer cat was indeed his. However, the judge ruled against Buckle. Buckle appealed twice, and lost every appeal he made. This may seem strange to US readers who are used to leash laws, and indoor only cats. However, there were several reasons why Buckle lost.

See the original newspaper article here: http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1368&dat=19260104&id=kVpQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Vw8EAAAAIBAJ&pg=7310,2895448

The judge in this case made his ruling based on the following points of law (Source: http://www.noelsweeney.co.uk/the-cat-burglar-who-stole-his-neighbours-pigeons/).

"(i) That the roaming character of cats was a recognised habit and the custom was to allow them to roam about freely. Consequently the responsibility in law was on the owner to keep them out of the way of cats and not the owner of the cat to prevent him from attacking pigeons;

(ii) The other reason was that in the case of a cat attacking pigeons it was necessary to prove scienter, the knowledge of a vicious propensity, before the responsibility in law could be laid on the owner of the cat. So liability would only arise if the cat possessed a vicious proclivity which was known to the owner" 

The appeal judge agreed.

"Apart from particular statutes, the owner of a domestic animal was not responsible for any damage done by it unless he was aware that the animal had acquired a character different from the generality of that species… It was said that the doctrine of law was different in the case of cats. There was no authority, but in my judgment one could not draw a distinction. Both cats and dogs were animals which their owners were not expected to chain up, and a cat was, even more than a dog, able and willing to trespass over a neighbour’s roofs, gardens, and trees.’"

Therefore, a trespassing cat would only be liable for the damage it did if it possessed an unusually viscous nature which the owner was already aware of. However, this does not mean that cat owners have a carte blanche as far as their pet is concerned. Whilst cat owners are not responsible if their cat should kill a neighbor's rabbit or bird (seeing as birds and rabbits represent a natural part of the feline diet), they are responsible if the cat acts in a way which is not typical for the species. For example, a while back then I heard complaints from the neighbors of my in-laws, who reported a large, un-neutered tom cat in the local area. This cat had already killed at least one other local cat, and was terrorising the rest. Whilst cat fights are normal and expected behavior, killing other cats is not. In this case, it would certainly have been possible to take legal action against the owner of the offending cat, provided that the injured party could prove that the owner of the murderous tom cat had been made aware of the unusual and viscous nature of their animal, and had neglected to take appropriate steps to prevent the cat from killing its own species again. But we digress. Back to Buckle vs Holmes.

"Buckle then tried to claim that as regards birds, cats should be treated as falling within the category of ferae naturae.   That would have given Buckle an advantage as Holmes would be liable without proof of knowledge of his cat’s ruthless nature towards birds.  Mr. Justice Shearman rejected that out of hand as: ‘That would be making a third class, unknown to the law. It was impossible at this stage to introduce that distinction: a cat was obviously a tame animal, and unless there was evidence or knowledge of acquired vice the owner was not responsible.’" [Underlining mine]

What does this mean? Buckle was trying to get the judge to declare the cat to be a wild or a feral animal. If Holmes had owned a pet which was classified as wild or feral, he would have been responsible for preventing it from roaming. However, the judge dismissed this argument. British readers will undoubtedly have heard people say "a cat is classified as a wild animal, which is why owners are not responsible for its actions". In fact, this is not the case. Moreover, if the cat was a wild animal, then cat owners would not be able to take legal action against people who injure their cats. This is NOT the case, as I shall go on to explain.

The Buckle v Holmes case can be summarised as follows: "In each case the court confirmed that an owner’s legal liability for their cat’s mischief would only arise if they had knowledge of an exceptionally vicious feline streak.... Cats still continue to be uniquely protected as legal wanderers at will. While many neighbours remain hostile to the intruder on their flowerbed, if the culprit is an ordinary moggy the owner is not liable. For any liability to arise the owner would have to possess knowledge of their propensity to act differently to an ordinary domestic cat. Then the owner, who has a duty of care to their neighbour, could be liable for any damage caused by their wayward cat. Indeed that duty of care places a burden on an owner to ensure his cat does not injure people or property. In that event an owner, especially with such special knowledge, could be liable if his cat attacks a bird or the resident household cat or the neighbour seeking to rescue his pets. The landmark case of Buckle v. Holmes confirmed the position of cats at common law. When the Animals Act 1971 was introduced it made owners of ‘livestock’ liable for any damage caused by their animals straying onto another person’s property. However the definition of ‘livestock’ under the Act does not include a cat. So 90 years later English Law still protects the nine lives of the trespassing domestic cat."

Trap, Neuter, Release... and get Arrested!

Now that we have established that cat owners are not liable for damage their cats do, unless the cat acts in a manner unusual for the species, and the owner is aware of this unusual tendency, let's look at what happens to people who either harm cats, or do things like trap, neuter, release to an owned cat.

Killing or Injuring Cats: A few months ago, there was some arsehole troll who enjoyed posting on internet forums about how he shot neighborhood cats. He claimed that the cats endangered entire bird species (for reasons why this claim is simply untrue in most areas of the UK, see my earlier post about indoor and outdoor cats; the RSPB is Britain's number one authority on bird populations, and they specifically report no link between species decline and cat predation). He claimed that it was the responsibility of the cat owner to keep the cat indoors (we have just established that legally, in Britain, this is not the case). He also claimed that shooting cats was legal "everywhere on God's green earth".

Let's start with the fact that it is actually quite difficult to get a licensed firearm in the UK, that it is illegal to discharge it inside a built up area, that anyone who shot a cat would summarily have their firearms license removed by police, and that owning an unlicensed firearm carries a mandatory prison sentence. All of this aside, what offenses would this man have committed, had he lived in Britain?

Answer: Anyone who kills or injures a cat is guilty of two offenses.

1. A breach of the Animal Welfare Act 2006. Now, the punishments under this act aren't too severe... our shooter would have been fined, ordered to pay court costs, and banned for keeping animals for a period of time (usually 5-10 years). If he had any pets (for example, dogs) they would have been removed from his care and rehomed. This ban would also have prevented him from being responsible for any animal within the time period in question... therefore, if he went to his daughter's house, for example, and she went shopping, leaving him as the only adult at home with her dog, he would have been guilty of breaching his ban, and could have been returned to court for further punishment.

2. More serious for our shooter is the Criminal Damage Act 1971. Because the law regards cats as property (remember that Buckle v Holmes specifically said that cats were NOT feral, but owned) then an offence is committed under this act "if a person, without lawful excuse, kills or injures a cat belonging to another person" (Source: http://www.cats.org.uk/uploads/documents/cat-care-leaflets-2013/EG13_Cats_and_the_law.pdf). The punishments under this act are more severe... and they depend on how much money is in question. If the cat's owner claims damages of less than £5,000 (for example, the cat was killed, and their out of pocket expenses only covered cremation costs) then the maximum penalty for our shooter is a £2,500 fine and/or 3 months imprisonment. However, if the owners of the cat have incurred expenses of over £5,000 trying to save the cat (for example, after an injury), or the cat was an exceptionally valuable animal worth over £5,000, then the penalties increase to a maximum of a £5,000 fine and/or 6 months imprisonment. (Source: http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/s_to_u/sentencing_manual/damage_-_simple/). An example of a man being prosecuted and sent to prison for setting his dog on a cat trapped inside his shed can be found here: http://www.scunthorpetelegraph.co.uk/MAN-JAILED-PET-DOG-KILLED-CAT/story-11175273-detail/story.html

Trap and Release/ Removing Problem Cats: In 2012, an elderly man trapped his neighbors' cats inside humane cages because they were messing up his garden. He then took them miles away and released them in the countryside. There is no evidence that he harmed the cats. Question: what offences, if any, did this man commit?

Answer: as the cat is property, this man is guilty of an offence under the Theft Act 1968. Even if the cat is lost or has strayed, it is still the property of the original owner. It is therefore necessary to make "reasonable efforts" to find the original owner. This includes, for example, taking the cat to be scanned for a microchip at the local vet or rescue centre, and advertising the animal's whereabouts. If you have an animal in your possession through whatever means, and you do not take reasonable steps to reunite the animal with a potential owner, you are guilty of theft. I want to make this absolutely clear, because on some sites then I see people saying "my neighbor does not care for her cats" and people advise the original poster to simply take the cats from her. Make no mistake about it: this is THEFT. Even if the cat is in your back garden when you take it, it is STILL THEFT. Even if you find a distressed cat, you decide to adopt it, and you do not take reasonable steps to find the owner, that is ALSO THEFT. You cannot simply assume that a free roaming cat does not have an owner... this is simply not true.

The maximum penalty for theft is ten years' imprisonment. That's right... TEN YEARS. I will briefly summarise the relevant parts of the theft act here:

"A person is guilty of theft if he dishonestly appropriates property belonging to another with the intention of permanently depriving the other of it.... It is immaterial whether the appropriation is made with a view to gain, or is made for the thief’s own benefit.... Wild creatures, tamed or untamed, shall be regarded as property; but a person cannot steal a wild creature not tamed nor ordinarily kept in captivity, or the carcase of any such creature, unless either it has been reduced into possession by or on behalf of another person and possession of it has not since been lost or abandoned, or another person is in course of reducing it into possession....  Property shall be regarded as belonging to any person having possession or control of it, or having in it any proprietary right or interest (not being an equitable interest arising only from an agreement to transfer or grant an interest).... A person appropriating property belonging to another without meaning the other permanently to lose the thing itself is nevertheless to be regarded as having the intention of permanently depriving the other of it if his intention is to treat the thing as his own to dispose of regardless of the other’s rights; and a borrowing or lending of it may amount to so treating it if, but only if, the borrowing or lending is for a period and in circumstances making it equivalent to an outright taking or disposal....A person guilty of theft shall on conviction on indictment be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years." Source: http://sixthformlaw.info/06_misc/statutes/16_theft_act_1968.htm

In this case, our cat thief got off lightly... he paid a £205 fine and £250 damages to the owners of the cats, which would have been reduced because of his age, infirmity, and public apology for his actions: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/9768885/Pensioner-trapped-neighbours-cats-in-homemade-cages.html

It is really important to state that this law applies to missing cats, lost cats, and even dead cats... as the carcass of an animal belongs to its owner (not to mention the animal's microchip and collar), the same legal requirements to find the owner of the animal apply. You are therefore required to take reasonable steps to find the owner before disposing of the corpse.

Trap, Neuter, Release:This is another one I hear all the time online. A person is having issues with a neighbor's cat, usually an un-neutered tom cat. The US posters suggest trapping the cat, neutering it, and releasing it. Question: what offences, if any, would someone commit by doing this?

Answer: the person is guilty of medical trespass. I am less aware of the penalties for medical trespass, having only been made aware of it recently. I was made aware of it when I humanely trapped an un-neutered, injured tom cat in a poor state, and took it to the vet. He was treated for his injuries, and I asked about what would happen next. What I actually found out surprised me. The vet (having scanned the cat for a microchip and establishing that it was not chipped, tattooed, or otherwise marked as being an owned cat) immediately contacted the RSPCA and the local police. They were told that they could not neuter the cat unless they had taken reasonable steps to establish that the cat did not have an owner. Scanning the animal for a microchip and checking for a tattoo was not sufficient. If the cat was neutered then and there, the vet would have been guilty of medical trespass and could have lost their license to practise. We therefore attached a paper collar around the neck of the cat, noted its physical condition, and logged it. The idea was that any owner would read the paper collar and call one of the contact numbers on the collar. If the cat was caught a second time, a few weeks later, and there had been no contact in the meantime, it could then be neutered and rehomed. 

Please note that RSPCA advice and Cat's Protection advice differ on this point: the RSPCA advise people to release neutered ferals to the place where they came from. In contrast, the CPL attempts to rehome ferals to managed feral cat colonies (for example, on farms). The UK does not have a significant feral cat problem, unlike some areas in the USA... this is also important to note.

Anyway, it transpired that this cat actually had an owner... in this case, a very irresponsible one. However, there was very little that I could do about it. The owner was under no obligation to neuter her cat or keep it indoors. If I had removed the cat, I would have been guilty of theft. If the vet had neutered it, they could have lost their license to practise. I would therefore ask US based posters to please be aware... before you advise people to TNR, they must be made aware of the legal penalties they could face if they are UK based.

Hit and Run:  This area of law is murkier. Whilst it is true that you do not have to report any car accident involving a cat to the police (unlike, for example, an accident involving a dog, which you MUST report) then you have still committed damage to property. In this case, however, the onus of proof lies on the cat owner (or other interested party) to indicate that the driver was speeding, driving without due care and attention, or committing another road traffic offence at the time they hit the cat. For example, if a driver deliberately swerved to hit the cat, that is classified as dangerous driving. Not only is dangerous driving a motoring offence (and a serious one), a conviction would allow the owners of the cat to sue for damages. The problem in this instance is proving the offence.

Summary: Whilst a cat owner is generally protected from any damage its cat does, anyone who harms, steals, removes, or neuters an owned cat without the permission of the owner can be prosecuted under British law.

What you CAN do about Problem Cats

There are a few legal things you can do about problem cats, however.

1. Talk to the owner. This should always be the first step. Hopefully the problem cat has a collar and a tag. If not, you can borrow a hand held microchip reader and scan the cat. If you call the appropriate microchip registry, they will then call the owner on your behalf, and the owner will hopefully come to pick up the cat from your house. If the cat is then doing something unreasonable, you can talk to the owner about it. HOWEVER, please be aware that the law is not on your side. If you own rabbits, for example, Buckle v Holmes makes clear that it is your responsibility to make sure that the cats do not get your rabbits... it is not the responsibility of the cat owner to prevent this. A more productive solution would be to suggest that the cat wears a collar with a bell and a tag. Bells significantly reduce predation. You could even buy the cat such a collar as a gift. You could also suggest that the cat owner sets out an outside cat toilet, or create one in your own garden, therefore limiting where the cat toilets to a single area. A covered outdoor litterbox will provide the cats with a nicer place to go than your roses!

2. Set up sprinklers. You can get motion activated sprinklers. If you do not own pets yourself, these can be set up whenever you are not in the garden. After a few sprays, kitty will soon learn that the garden is not a nice place to be. If you own cats yourself, keeping your own cats in at night and setting the sprinklers up then is also a solution. You could also keep the cats in for a few days and switch the sprinklers on during that time, in the hope that other cats will back off. The sprinkler method is much better than the "spraying the offending cat with water" method. As anyone who has had cats knows, all that happens when you spray a cat is that the cat thinks "why is this arsehole spraying me?". You want the cat to be deterred from the garden... NOT just from you!

3. Make your garden unattractive. Covering beds with wire, or using clippings from rose bushes, holly, or pine cones as fertiliser prevents digging. You can also use bits of citrus fruit, such as lemon peelings. Cats hate citrus. Used coffee grounds can also deter cats, although they do change the PH of your soil, so be careful! An alternative would be to use commercial cat repellants. You can even use urine... cats mark territories with scent. Therefore, peeing into a jug and pouring it around the garden can repel cats by making them think that a huge cat has already claimed the area as their territory. Alternatively, dog pee works well (for obvious reasons). I even read about someone who used lion pee from the local zoo!

4. Use ultrasonic cat repellents. These are available from the RSPB website. They are remarkably effective. The only problem is that they drive all animals within their range absolutely crazy, so if you live in a terraced house then you may find that you become the least popular neighbor on the block when all the local dogs begin to howl non-stop, and the cats all start wailing. If you have no pets, and a good sized garden, however, these are a great solution.

5. If the cat is genuinely a feral, the Cats Protection League can advise you about trapping them (don't bother calling the RSPCA... they are more interested in cases of cruelty). Bear in mind that you will have to trap them twice. The first time you trap them, they need to be checked for injuries, logged at your local vet, and fitted with a paper collar just in case they are an owned animal. The second time you catch them, they can be neutered and rehomed somewhere more appropriate (provided that the owner has not contacted the vet in the meantime, of course). 

6. Legal action. There are a few laws which can help you here. Bear in mind that cats are an exception to the Animals Act 1971, so trespass is not covered. Nor can you sue cat owners for damages, as I have already demonstrated. However, there are a few laws which can help you. The first is the Environmental Protection Act 1990. If you have a local cat who howls non-stop, you can ask the council to install hardware which measures noise within your property. Should the cat howl loudly enough to be registered on the equipment, the owner will be in breach of the EPA and can be fined. They will also have to take measures to reduce the howling. The EPA covers any instance where the "noise is loud and intrusive, whether that’s persistent or intermittent, and which affects the quality and comfort of your everyday life" Source: http://www.problemneighbours.co.uk/your-rights-under-environmental-act.html

The EPA also gives local authorities the power to prosecute "where an animal is 'kept in such a place or manner as to be prejudicial to health or a nuisance'... It is the function of the Courts to decide whether, in a particular case, the keeping of animals in the manner in which they are kept or in the circumstances in which they are kept, amounts to a nuisance. Since the law of nuisance only applies where there is 'material' discomfort or annoyance the Courts are unlikely to grant an injunction in relation to a nuisance relating to the fouling by cats unless the fouling is on a substantial scale, for example, where a very large number of cats are kept by one particular person" Source: http://www.inbrief.co.uk/animal-law/cats-fouling.htm

In practise, this law only applies to people who are keeping an inappropriate number of cats in an unsuitable premises. Likewise, Anti-Social Behaviour Orders can also be used against people who hoard cats or keep them inappropriately. However, this is unlikely to apply to a normal, standard, cat owner. Gloucestershire Council specifically states: "The following list outlines some of the common complaints we receive, and either do not deal with, or cannot be dealt with under the provisions of the Environmental Protection Act 1990.... Animals not under a person’s control. For example, pigeons, or cats which stray and foul neighbouring gardens". Source: http://www.southglos.gov.uk/Documents/COS060021.pdf

Whilst a good neighbor will be sensitive to your concerns, please bear in mind that they are under no legal obligation to pay for any of these expenses. This may seem unfair, but I do not make the law. I'm just telling you how it is, so you don't have any problems in the future!

P.S. Since writing this, I have been made aware that there have been some successful prosecutions in Scotland with regards to cats who have caused damage to property, under the Environmental Protection Act. I'm not sure exactly how this works in law, but can only speculate that Buckle v Holmes has only been accepted as a legal principle in England and Wales, but not necessarily in Scotland or Northern Ireland. If someone could inform me on this point, I would be grateful.

My First Post... Indoor vs Outdoor Access Cats. A UK Perspective.

I should probably begin this post by saying that, until a few years ago, I never realised that some people kept cats exclusively indoors at all. I suppose I suspected that elderly, disabled, or very sick cats were kept indoors, but to find out that there was a whole world out there where people kept their cats inside 24/7 was a revelation.

The next thing I found out was that a lot of the advice surrounding indoor cats was US based, and the US advice was overwhelmingly in favour of keeping them inside. With this in mind, I thought I would present some facts for a British audience, which might help.

Spoiler: I currently own both indoor only and outdoor access cats, and each cat's individual level of outdoor access is constantly subject to change depending on their circumstances. You don't see many people like me around, so this might be interesting!

Differences between the US and UK

- Many US states have leash laws, which prevent owned animals from roaming the streets without a lead. In comparison, UK cats have the legal right to roam, and their owners are legally protected from any damage they do. The owner cannot be held responsible for the actions of a cat, but they can be held responsible for the actions of a dog.

- Wild animals. Some areas of the US have bears and coyotes, which can kill a cat (not to mention bob cats, and even alligators, in some parts of the US - *nervous gulp*). We only have foxes. Foxes are more or less dangerous depending on where you live. DO NOT dismiss the risk that foxes could pose to your pet. However, they are much less likely to attack your pet than a coyote. This makes having outdoor access much safer for your cat.

A reader has also pointed out the very risk of snake attacks in the US. There is only one type of poisonous snake in the UK: the adder. They are very rare, and only live in country areas, usually in places where there is a lot of bracken. I have never heard of a cat being attacked by an adder, but I wouldn't say it was impossible. It just goes to show that you can't automatically assume that cats are safer in the country than they are in the city!

- Poisons. The UK has much tougher poison controls, reducing the risk to your pet.

- Law. Some US states allow people to shoot uncollared cats, for example. Not only are guns tightly regulated here, but the RSPCA is very quick to prosecute in cases of animals cruelty. Also, cats are property. As in, legal property. If you take someone's cat, that is theft under the 1968 theft act. For those not up on the law, this states that anyone who dishonestly appropriates property belonging to another, with the intention to permanently deprive them of it, can be sentenced to a prison term of up to seven years. If you don't believe me, look here:

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/9768885/Pensioner-trapped-neighbours-cats-in-homemade-cages.html

Your cat, therefore, has a legal right to roam, but is also protected by the law.

- Town layout. Many US cities were designed after the motor car was invented, and were designed as car friendly cities. This means lots of nice wide roads in urban areas, where you can drive comparatively quickly. In contrast, many of our urban spaces are now partially or completely pedestrianised, meaning that cats are less at risk of being hit by cars. Many of our roads were also originally designed for horses and carts, so they are narrow and often congested, reducing road speed in real terms.

- The size of the average home. By UK standards, the average sized US home is absolutely enormous. By US standards, UK homes aren't houses... they are rabbit hutches! By all means, if you have an absolutely enormous house and a greater disposable income, feel free to create a kitty playground for your cats... but most UK homes do not have that option. The difference?

"A drive around many American neighborhoods confirms it: Today’s homes are big. No, not big -- huge. The average American home swelled from 983 square feet in 1950 to 2,349 square feet in 2004 -- a 140% increase in size." Source: http://realestate.msn.com/article.aspx?cp-documentid=13107733

In contrast to this: "In 1920, average homes usually measured 1,647 square feet and boasted four bedrooms, but today's equivalent has three bedrooms and is 926 square feet, according to the Institution of British Architects." Source: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2398714/The-incredible-shrinking-houses-British-homes-built-just-HALF-size-1920s.html

Conclusion: The average American home is over 2.5 times larger than its British equivalent. That makes a huge difference. I would say that my home is average... three bedrooms and around 926 square feet (maybe a bit less). My husband also grew up in a 3 bedroom house of a similar size to the one we currently live in. In that house lived his parents, three children, and one cat. I would say that was pretty normal for the UK... something which many US citizens probably can't wrap their heads around at all!

The average cat requires 500 sq ft of space (although cats can, and do, overlap portions of their territories in the wild, especially if they are different genders, or come from the same family group, this cannot be guaranteed within an average domestic set up). This means that an English cat owner who keeps two indoor only cats within their 926 sq ft home is at an increased risk of seeing territorial disputes and stress related behavior. In contrast, with 2,349 sq ft of space, an American owner could comfortably keep four indoor only cats with very few problems.... and probably as many as five, provided they were sensible in their choice of cat, and provided vertical space for them.

- Fewer pedigree cats. The UK has far fewer pedigree cats as a total percentage of the cat population. Pedigrees are more likely to be kept as indoor cats due to the increased risk of theft.

- Culture. We simply have an "outdoor access cat" culture.

- The RSPCA says: "Currently there is no definitive knowledge regarding whether being an indoor-only cat is any better or worse than being one who has access to the outdoors. It is important to make sure that you are meeting all of your cat's needs whether they are an indoor cat or not. However, compared to cats who have the freedom to go outside, indoor-only cats will have additional needs that must be met to keep them healthy and happy. Cats can adapt well to an indoor life if they are kept in this environment from an early age, but cats that have been used to going outside may find it more difficult to adapt. We would not recommend keeping a cat that is used to going outside, as an ‘indoor-only cat’, unless it is for health reasons. If you rehome a kitten and intend to keep it indoors, you could consider adopting a sibling-pair so that they can keep each other company. For an active animal like the cat, an indoor environment can become predictable and boring, and can lead to stress, inactivity and obesity. So it’s important that you provide your cat with everything it needs."

http://www.rspca.org.uk/allaboutanimals/pets/cats/environment/indoors

- This means that US based organisations will generally not rehome cats to you unless you promise to keep them indoors. In the UK, the reverse is true. Charities generally believe that quality of life is better for outdoor access cats, and would not recommend you keep a cat indoors except in unusual circumstances. Why should this be the case?

Rescue shelters are very concerned that when they rehome a cat, it is for life. They don't want a cat returned to them because it howls, or scratches the furniture, or urinates inside the house. In my experience (and the experience of my vet, and the experience of online vets such as this lady :http://www.msdivine.net/felinebeauty/indoor.php), all of the above are more commonly seen in indoor only cats. That doesn't necessarily mean that all indoor cats will act in this way, nor does it mean that outdoor access cats will not. It's simply a matter of balancing risk factors as part of a bigger picture.

Howling and spraying are signs of stress, often seen in animals which are confined in too small a space, where they cannot exhibit natural behaviors. Indoor cats also don't wear down their claws in the same way, so they have a greater need to scratch, and are more likely to destroy furniture in the process. Moreover, most UK rescue cats will have previously been outdoor access, or semi-feral. Rehoming a cat is already stressful for them, and keeping them indoors when they have previously had outdoor access can be an additional source of stress which can lead to their starting to exhibit negative behaviors. This is why the largest, national shelters (the RSPCA and CPL, for example) will not rehome to indoor only homes, unless there is a good reason (for example, health reasons). They will also not generally rehome kittens to indoor only homes, because the kitten represents an "unknown quantity". There is no way of knowing what character it will exhibit as it ages, and therefore no way of knowing if it will behave poorly if confined.

- A final key difference between the countries in question is RABIES. Rabies is the number one, worst diagnosis which an animal can have. Luckily, the UK is officially rabies free. This means that even if you get bitten by a wild animal, you need not fear certain, painful death. In the US, by comparison, outdoor access cats are at risk from rabies. Therefore, so are their owners...

All of these differences lead to differences of opinion. Now, let's compare some statistics.

US and UK Statistics

According to http://www.messybeast.com/indooroutdoor.htm, an estimated 88-92% of British cats are outdoor access, and about 10% are pedigrees. In the US, there are more pedigrees. The common statistic that is often banded about is that outdoor only cats in the US have a life expectancy of 2-5 years, but in fact this is not the case:

"A pet that spends more time outdoors may live on average 2 to 3 years less than a cat that lives exclusively indoors. In addition, unexpected accidents may end an outdoor cat's life at any time. Stray and feral cats live significantly less. On average, a stray cat lives 5 years if he is in a community of cats and 2 to 3 years if he lives by himself."

Source: http://www.vetinfo.com/indoor-outdoor-cat-life-expectancy.html

Also, as messybeast points out: "Neutered cats live longer and house pets are more likely to be neutered than free-living cats; but this longevity difference is due to neutering, not to indoor-living".

Many of the US studies have also compared feral cats to outdoor access ones... not a good comparison. A stray may only live for 2-5 years, but a properly cared for outdoor access cat is in a very different position to a stray. I suspect that there is some confusion because, whilst I have heard of many Americans keeping "barn cats" or "outdoor cats", I haven't heard of many who keep outdoor access cats. The difference is that an outdoor access cat moves freely between the house and the garden, usually using a cat flap in the process. Most of them, however, will spend most of their time indoors by choice. They are very different to both barn cats and semi-ferals in this regard.

Now, I have been reading articles which I need to find the links to (I'll check my internet history later)! They claim that an estimated 25% of all British cats will die after being hit by a car. However, an estimated 80% of cats who are run over are feral strays. This means that only approximately 5% of owned cats die as a result of road traffic accidents.

Hang on, you say... why should this be the case? A cat is a cat... why would being owned make it be less likely to be hit by a car? My hypothesis is as follows:

- UK cities simply do not have significant feral cat populations. Most feral cats live in the country.

- Country roads are the most dangerous roads for cats. Cats aren't thick. Millions of years of evolution has seen to that. If a car is whizzing along a road every 5 seconds, they aren't going to try and cross it (unless they are being chased by a dog or a fox, for example). Likewise, if you live on one of those double parked roads you often find in UK cities, where cars have to drive at about 5MPH and have about 3 inches of space on either side of your car, cats will simply get out of the way. The dangerous roads are those which have a high speed limit, but aren't busy. In other words... country roads.

- Most cats who are killed on the roads are less than 1 year old (I know, I need the ref!). Feral cats breed a lot. They have a lot of babies. Those babies are more likely to get run over simply because they are babies, and have not yet developed good judgement.

- You can reduce your chances of your pet cat having an undesirable territory by taking out on a harness for a few weeks before you let it out for good. Take it to desirable spaces around the house and garden... such as nearby patches of wasteland. It is then more likely to want to establish a territory there. This means that you can have a small impact in reducing the cat's chances of including a road in its territory.

Anyway, the official estimate is that, if your outdoor access cat survives its first year, its life expectancy will be almost identical to that of an indoor only cat. If we take that 5% chance of being hit by a car, and we accept that most of the cats who make up that statistic are under the age of one, we can assume that a cat who has survived its first year of outdoor access has an even smaller chance of being hit by a car.

However, for some people, even a tiny chance is not worth taking. So why does everyone not choose to keep their cat indoors?

Indoor and Outdoor Pros and Cons

1. Indoor cats have a reduced chance of being hit by a car.

Verdict: True, but with an important caveat. If your indoor only cat escapes from your house, they will probably be confused and disorientated, because they have never been outside before. In this case, they could possibly be more likely to have an accident!

You can reduce this problem by taking your indoor cat outside on a harness, so that they have some knowledge of the world out there. Beware, however: this can be a double edged sword. If they decide that they like the world outside so much that they want to see more of it, you may end up with an escapee cat... and that's no fun for anyone.

If you have an outdoor access cat, the ideal is for you to start taking them outside on a leash or a kitten harness shortly before they are neutered, but after they have finished their full course of "childhood" vaccinations. Take them only to places where you know they will be safe... for example, if your house opens out onto a road, but there is an area of gardens behind the house, only let them exit through the back door. Think like a cat... cats use physical markers such as fencing and walls to mark the edge of their territory. By allowing them to establish scent marking around key areas, you are encouraging them to mark a safe space as their own. Allow them greater and greater lead length as time goes on, so that they can explore under supervision. Watch where they go, and remove any potential hazards. Once the cat appears comfortable outside, you are confident that there are few risks, and the cat has recovered from being neutered, wait until full daylight. Make sure the cat is hungry. Allow the cat outside for a small period of time. Initially, you should watch the cat, but you can scale back supervision and allow the cat to spend longer and longer outside as time goes on. Call them back inside with food when their time is up. You can realistically expect to spend about 2-3 months at this stage, before you can say for sure that all is well. However, every cat is different!

The ideal is to keep your outdoor access cat inside at night, if possible. Roads are less busy at night, increasing the chance that cats might try to cross them. Also, they can be blinded by car headlights and freeze, increasing the chances of their being hit. If they are hit, they are also less likely to be found and taken to the vet immediately at night, which further reduces their chances of survival. Finally, they are more likely to be spooked or attacked by a fox at night, and could possibly be chased onto a road and run over. I know of several cases where this exact thing has happened.

2. Outdoor cats kill wildlife.

Verdict: Whilst this is true, this can be a problem or an advantage. My cats kill large numbers of mice and rats, but they have only ever caught one bird: a fledgeling robin with a wounded wing. Birds usually have the advantage of flight... they can work in dimensions that cats simply cannot.

Statistics are misleading here, so I refer you to the RSPB website. The RSPB say something very important... fit your cat with a collar and a bell. Bells reduce predation on birds by 41% and predation on small mammals by 34%. Even better... an ultrasonic collar reduces bird predation by 51% and mammal predation by 38%. So your cat will still catch mice... but it will catch much fewer birds! Even if your cat is an indoor cat, collars are important. If your cat should go missing, and be found by an elderly person, then such people are often unaware of how common microchipping actually is! They may feed your cat as a stray, but never take it to the vet to be scanned for a chip. A collar could ensure their safe return. Also, if you have a collar with a bell, you will find it much easier to find your cat... both inside and outside the house. Just listen for the jingle!

[NB I am aware that some owners dislike collars because of the risk of a collar injury. My personal opinion is that the advantages outweigh the risks, although I would always recommend a collar with an elastic panel, which will stretch and snap if it gets caught on something, allowing the cat to escape.]

The RSPB say: "Domestic cats are protected by law and it is an offence to trap, injure or kill them. The welfare of cats must not be ignored. Remember that cats, even if they are unwelcome in your garden, may be someone's much-loved pets, perhaps of a child or elderly person living alone. Some people have called for legislation introduced to curb the freedom with which cats are allowed to roam. While we understand why people feel this way, we are not able to urge the government to introduce such legislation, as we have no scientific evidence of the impact of cat predation on bird populations that is strong enough to support such a call."

"Estimates of how many creatures are killed by cats each year vary significantly. The most recent figures are from the Mammal Society, which estimates that the UK's cats catch up to 275 million prey items a year, of which 55 million are birds. This is the number of prey items that were known to have been caught; we don't know how many more the cats caught, but didn't bring home, or how many escaped but subsequently died.... Despite the large numbers of birds killed, there is no scientific evidence that predation by cats in gardens is having any impact on bird populations UK-wide. This may be surprising, but many millions of birds die naturally every year, mainly through starvation, disease, or other forms of predation. There is evidence that cats tend to take weak or sickly birds. It is likely that most of the birds killed by cats would have died anyway from other causes before the next breeding season... It is likely that most of the birds killed by cats would have died anyway from other causes before the next breeding season, so cats are unlikely to have a major impact on populations.... Those bird species that have undergone the most serious population declines in the UK (such as skylarks, tree sparrows and corn buntings) rarely encounter cats, so cats cannot be causing their declines. Research shows that these declines are usually caused by habitat change or loss, particularly on farmland.... Of the birds most frequently caught by cats in gardens, only two (house sparrow and starling) have shown declines in breeding population across a range of habitats during the last six years....Gardens may provide a breeding habitat for at least 20% of the UK populations of house sparrows, starlings, greenfinches, blackbirds and song thrushes four of which are declining across the UK. For this reason it would be prudent to try to reduce cat predation, as, although it is not causing the declines, some of these species are already under pressure....Cat predation can be a problem where housing is next to scarce habitats such as heathland, and could potentially be most damaging to species with a restricted range (such as cirl buntings) or species dependent on a fragmented habitat (such as Dartford warblers on heathland)."

"Most cats are opportunistic hunters they will catch whatever they come across rather than actively hunting a particular species. This means whatever is most abundant or vulnerable is most likely to be caught. Cats will catch prey even if they are not hungry.... According to a recent major survey by the Mammal Society, birds comprise a relatively small proportion (about 20%) of all the creatures caught by cats. Most of the rest of their catches will be mice or voles. Most of the birds are taken around dawn and dusk, during the breeding season and mid-winter.....It often seems that cats catch more birds than small mammals. This is because birds are mainly caught during the day, so you are more likely to see it, while mice and voles are mainly caught at night."

There are various studies which show that the domestic cat is responsible for eradicating native bird species throughout the world. HOWEVER, we have to bear in mind that the cat is a relative newcomer to many environments. They only arrived in Australia and America in the very late 1700s, and like many introduced species, they soon set about decimating the local wildlife. In contrast, the domestic cat was probably introduced the Britain by the Phonecians, in exchange for tin, probably arriving some time before 800BC. They were certainly introduced by the Romans in large numbers. As a result, they have been part of the British ecosystem (or, at least, the ecosystem of England and Wales!) for over 2000 years. Any permanent damage they could do to our native wildlife has already been done long ago, for the most part, and the system has already restored a balance. Moreover, because of the prevalence of rat species in Europe, which multiply faster than cats and can eradicate low nesting bird species, cats may actually have contributed to the survival of several bird species, as they catch far more mice and rats than they do birds.

Source: http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/CCAH/local-assets/pdfs/FelHusCh1.pdf

This explains the history of the domestic cat.

3. Outdoor Cats are More at Risk from Fighting with Other Cats, Disease, Parasites, Posions, and Loss.

Verdict: Debatable. If you live in a multi-cat household, the stress of having to share a small or otherwise inappropriate territory, and not being able to get "alone time" can increase the risk of fighting within the household... I know this from experience. Diseases and parasites can also be spread in surprising ways. For example, I once kept two cats on the roof of a tower block (long story). They somehow contracted parvovirus whilst there... but I have no clue how it happened! They could not possibly have physically come into contact with any other cats. I suppose it is theoretically possible that they caught it from house mice, or that I stroked an infected cat and then brought it to them... but beyond that, I'm stumped.

It is important to say that indoor only cats could be potentially more at risk from disease, if their owners allow themselves to be complacent. If you simply say "oh, I don't need to give my cat lots of vaccinations, because they never go outside", then you are flirting with disaster. Always vaccinate your cat regularly. This includes vaccinating for feline leukemia, and rabies, where appropriate. You need ALL the vaccinations for EVERY cat, unless there is a compelling medical reason not to have them. Also, all cats, whether indoor or outdoor, need treating for fleas every 4 weeks, and for internal parasites every 3 months. You just never know... you could be complacent for years, and then all of a sudden your indoor only cat, Mr Snugglesworth, escapes through a window and comes back with feline leukemia. Why didn't you take the time to vaccinate him, even though he was indoor only? You will kick yourself if you skip certain vaccinations in order to save money, and then the worst happens.

[NB Whilst I know that there has been concern about vaccine induced sarcomas recently, these tend to be much more common in countries where the rabies vaccination is mandatory, as far as I am aware. My personal theory is that this is not a coincidence... the rabies vaccination has a high viscosity and requires a large gauge needle, making it one of the most painful vaccinations for the cat, and this vaccination also causes much more localised trauma. I suspect that over-vaccinating for rabies may cause a disproportionate number of these vaccine related problems, and would love to see some research on the subject!]

If your cat is stressed (as some indoor only cats can be), this also lowers their immune system and makes them more prone to opportunistic bacterial and viral infections. Urinary tract infections in male cats are largely caused by stress, and can be fatal. This can be made worse when multiple cats share litter trays, as they come into contact with each others faeces, thereby cross infecting each other. Many viruses and bacteria do not survive for long when exposed to the sun and the rain... but they can survive for weeks in your litter tray, or in your carpets. Correct litter tray hygiene is essential, and getting each cat to use their own tray, or to use a Litter Kwitter, reduces this risk. All the same, using litter trays is a major vector for infection in cats. Additionally, in humans, children who do not play outside are more prone to certain infections later in life. It is theorised that their immune systems do not develop properly; immunity develops when the system is continuously exposed to very low levels of infection, therefore priming it to deal with high levels of infection it may encounter later. I see no reason why this does not also apply to cats, although I have yet to see any published research confirming this.

It is important to make a note about FeLV, FIV, and FIP here. Whilst FeLV is not a standard vaccination in the US, it is a standard vaccination in the UK, and responsible owners vaccinate their cats before they allow them outside for the first time. They also give them yearly FeLV boosters. This vaccine is highly effective. I don't know anyone who has ever had a problem with FeLV in their outdoor access cat. However, for some unknown reason (perhaps someone could educate me) FIV is not a common vaccination here. It is usually recommended that FIV positive cats are kept as indoor only cats, to prevent them from infecting others. I will look into vaccinating my cats against FIV in the future. The only problem, as far as I can see, is that the vaccine is only around 80% effective, and will cause the cat to appear to be FIV+ on future SNAP tests. However, I think that this is only an issue if the cat is not microchipped, in which case it could be taken in as a stray, tested, and considered FIV+ in the absence of a full medical history. As my cats are microchipped, it does not matter if they appear to be FIV+ on medical tests, because the vet can simply look up their medical history, check it against their microchip number, and see that they have been vaccinated. Likewise, the FIP vaccination is experimental, unlicensed, and of dubious effectiveness. I will discuss this elsewhere, but I will probably not be using it. Indoor only cats are at a greater risk of FeCoV transmission because the main method of transmission is cat poo, found in litterboxes (FeCoV is the virus which mutates to FIP... however, it is important to state that exposure to FeCoV does not necessarily mean that your cat will develop FIP). The FeCoV virus can only survive outdoor exposure for 24-48 hours... it can survive indoors, in a litterbox or a carpet, for up to 7 weeks.

In summary, therefore... FeLV is not an issue for a well cared for British cat, because of the prevalence of vaccination. FIV can be a problem for an outdoor access cat, and affects up to 4% of cats. However, vaccination will remove 80% of the risk, making a vaccinated, outdoor access cat around 1% likely to contract the virus. FIP is a problem for any cat, in any set of circumstances, but it mostly affects cats who share litterboxes. It affects between 0.3 and 1% of cats. Transmission risks can be reduced by steaming carpets and washing hard floors with a dilute bleach solution, amongst other things.

As far as poisons go, there are plenty of poisons inside your home, and plenty of places for accidents to occur. Statistically, most accidents happen inside the home, when we just get careless. I know that one of my boys had a nasty fall which damaged his knees. That happened inside the house... he was just so relaxed inside his territory that he wasn't paying attention like he should have been. Most outdoor access animals still spend most of their time indoors, as well... and you are most likely to have an accident in the place where you spend most of your time.

People get paranoid about the risk of others poisoning their cat... but the truth is that (depending on where you live) they are probably more likely to be poisoned inside your house, by your cleaning chemicals. When you clean the oven, they might cover themselves in oven cleaner and then lick it off. When you pour bleach down the toilet, they might get bleach poisoning from trying to drink the toilet water (especially if they are a breed which is fascinated by water, like a Bengal or a Turkish Van). It's not smart to simply say "oh, my indoor cat is far less likely to be poisoned". Far less likely to be deliberately poisoned, sure... but most cases of poisoning are accidental, not deliberate, and people are always more likely to attribute poisoning to the malice of another, rather than wondering if the problem lies within their own home.

Also, get a load of this from MessyBeast: " Cats sharing their homes with smokers are twice as likely than other cats in non-smoking households to develop Feline Leukaemia... Indoor only cats are at increased risk because they cannot spend time outdoors away from the smoke (1993-2000, Tufts University, Grafton, Massachusetts)"

Incense smoke can also be carcinogenic in cats.

Be sensible... minimise risk. Cover exposed wires and plug sockets, lock up poisons, and be on your guard. MessyBeast also has a helpful safety checklist.

As far as loss goes, outdoor access cats are more likely to vanish for a little while... but their chances of survival are much greater than that of indoor only cats when they do go missing, because they have more of the necessary skills to survive. It's a toss up. There are risk factors on both sides.

4. Indoor cats are more likely to suffer from neuroses and stress related behaviours such as howling, spraying, and overgrooming.

Verdict: From personal experience, and the experience of my vet... definitely TRUE. This is an argument which seems to be overlooked by most US sites. I will share my personal experiences below, when I discuss how I decided how to raise my cats, and explore the logic behind my decisions. Again, from MessyBeast:

"British behaviourists report more problems in indoor cats than in outdoor cats.... Pica may also be an anxiety-related stereotyped or obsessive behaviour and is more common in indoor-only cats as they have less opportunity to fulfil natural drives than indoor-outdoor cats.... This results in abnormal or repetitive behaviour (pacing, over-grooming, self-mutilation, tail-chasing, pica) and the abnormal behaviour may take over from normal behaviours. Environmental enrichment works for cats just as it works for zoo animals...It is true to say that cats with access to outdoors can more easily and more fully express natural instincts, burn off energy and vent any aggression (albeit on other cats or on prey).... It is also true that not every indoor cat will suffer from "indoor stress" (see later) and behaviour problems. It depends on the cat's personality (which may be related to breed), activity level, age and health. Behaviourists have noted that indoor cats can become neurotic or bored if a stimulating 3-D environment is not provided by the owner. They also need more regular play since an indoor environment doesn't present the ever-changing environment found in a garden.... Some natural behaviours can turn into obsessive behaviours in a stressed cat. The stress may be due to the indoor-only lifestyle not suiting the individual cat. The behaviour may initially have been an outlet to release energy or tension; the reward of "de-stressing" leads the cat to repeat the behaviour more and more often. Eventually it ceases to act as stress release and other aberrant or compulsive behaviours begin. The behaviours tend to be carryovers from kittenhood (sucking on things), exaggerated territorial/hunting behaviour (spraying, ankle-grabbing) and over-attachment/separation anxiety. Books on behaviour problems (some commenting on the link to lifestyle) have been written by biologist/naturalist Roger Tabor (Bristol, UK), Nicholas Dodman (Tufts, USA), Peter Neville (Association of Pet Behavioural Counsellors, UK), Claire Bessant (Feline Advisory Bureau)..... Some owners of indoor cats are resorting to calming drugs to control behavioural problems. Other owners consider this equivalent to sedating patients and prisoners who go "stir-crazy" through confinement. Long-term drug therapy is probably not good for cats (this phenomenon is too new for any long-term studies) and a change in lifestyle or environmental enrichment should be considered as alternatives..... Other owners have equipped their homes with high-level walkways, cat trees and they vary the available toys. This keeps cats stimulated, encourages exercise, provides "safe" places (where a cat can retreat if it wishes) and appears to reduce, or even prevent, a number of behavioural problems. It is exactly the same idea as environmental enrichment in forward-thinking zoos... One aberrant behaviour triggered by stress is Feline Hyperaesthesia Syndrome (FHS) which causes cats to perform repetitive, often violent or self-destructive behaviour, including over-grooming. Affected cats have been know to lick or chew away their fur, obsessively bite their own flanks or tails, or repeatedly attack the owner. In some cases, cats have damaged their tails so severely that amputation was needed. FHS seems to be normal behaviour repeated to an abnormal (excessive) degree. The cat becomes fixated on a particular activity. Like animals pacing or swaying in barren zoo cages, the behaviour provides an outlet and becomes a reward in itself. Most reports of FHS come from the USA. Reports from the UK are rare, probably because the majority of cats are free to go outdoors where the environment is more stimulating....An indoor-only cat is trapped with its stress factors. It can't flee and there is nothing for it to confront (feed and breed are also not appropriate responses). Somehow it needs to reduce its stress. One way of doing so is to act out a response - to attack its owner or to flee and hide under the bed. Other behaviours get co-opted into the repertoire as ways of relieving stress and anxiety - refuge in kittenish behaviour, destructive behaviour towards objects - known as displacement behaviour."

Although this blog is pretty pro-outdoor-access, I can say that everything I have just quoted is absolutely, 100%, spot on, true, in my experience.

Indoor only cats are a lot of work. They need constant stimulation, otherwise they go nuts. You will need multi-level perches in your house, and lots of playtime. They are also less likely to be lap cats, in my experience... outdoor access cats exhaust themselves outside and then come in for a cuddle. Indoor cats want to play all the time... with you! Consider getting more than one cat if you want to keep them indoors. With any luck, they will exhaust each other and play together. The ideal is to raise two kittens together... introducing an adult cat to another cat can be problematic, and requires careful consideration. Watch indoor only cats very carefully for signs of stress and treat immediately. Do not wait! It will probably get worse, not better. Try feliway plug ins as well. They work for some cats, but not others. I have also found that the Pet Remedy plug ins are very good at reducing stress, and valerian can also be dropped around in order to relax them. I would use things like catnip with caution, however... in my experience then catnip is a bit like cannabis... it makes some cats really relaxed and mellow, but others become paranoid and edgy.

My experience in this regard seems to be the complete opposite of what US sites report. They say that indoor only cats are friendlier and less stressed. This has definitely not generally been my experience, or the experience of my vet. I suppose it could be that indoor cat culture is so prevalent within the US that outdoor access cats are more likely to come from homes which spend less time with the animal, making them wilder? All I know is that, when I get home, the cats are running to see me, mewing excitedly. It's nice. I also wonder if there is some confusion between the two nations about what outdoor access actually means... some US sites seem to think it means that they seldom enter the house. I do know people who would kick their cat out of the house for long periods and only let it back in for meals... and yes, I do think that that is neglect, leaving the poor animal out in all weathers for such a long time. But my outdoor access cats spend most of their time inside the house, not outside. They have the option to go in and out through their state of the art cat flap... but that doesn't mean they have to take it. It's the same for most people I know.

I have definitely seen far more cases of aggression, spraying, scratching, and howling when my cats have been kept indoors for whatever reason. As soon as the cat flap comes into use again, this generally disappears almost immediately (within about 20 minutes).

5. Outdoor access cats are more hygienic.

Verdict: In some ways yes... in some ways no. Cats are very hygienic animals in general, and a cat who responded well to the LitterKwitter would probably be the most hygienic of all, regardless of whether or not they were outdoor access or indoor only. Once they have been given outdoor access, cats bury their poo and pee in the least smelly place... and that isn't inside your house! This means that you seldom have to clean the litter tray, although I would probably still have one to hand in case the weather is foul and kitty doesn't want to go outside.

If you want to reduce the use of trays for your indoor cat, you can try the LitterKwitter, which teaches them to use a human toilet. It isn't foolproof by any means, and can be tough to use in British houses where there is only one toilet, but some people have reported great success... and it's certainly more hygienic than using trays.

At this point, keen gardeners are probably making scoffing noises, and saying things like "more hygienic! My garden is covered in cat poo from your cats! How is that hygienic?" Well, you're right. Partially, anyway. Although sunlight and rain kills off most of the bacteria and viruses in poo within 24-48 hours, it does not kill off parasites such as toxoplasmosis. The solution is to provide an outdoor toileting area for your cats. This can take the form of a litter tray, or a bespoke outdoor toilet.  A bespoke outdoor toilet is a small area of your garden where cat litter and earth is dug into an open container, where the cat can toilet. Because of the fact that this toilet is exposed to the elements, cleaning it regularly is not essential, but it should be completely emptied and replaced semi-regularly. This many also be a good solution for a gardener who is sick and tired of encountering cat poo all the time. See also my post about dealing with problem cats.

Other things...

- Always, always, microchip and neuter your cat.

- An indoor only cat is much more likely to suffer from obesity, and the illnesses which can follow, such as diabetes. Monitor this closely. Take veterinary advice.

- If you want a cat flap, I recommend either a PetPorte, or a Sureflap. Both scan your cat's microchip, and prevent unwanted visitors from entering the house. Sureflap is battery operated. The advantage of Sureflap is that they make a dualscan cat flap, which scans your cats as they enter the house AND as they exit. This means that you can keep some of your cats as indoor only, and allow others to be outdoor access. All the same: watch out for tailgating! This is not a foolproof solution.

PetPorte is mains powered. The advantage of PetPorte is that it has a sensor which detects light levels, and you can set it so that after dark, it allows your pets to enter, but not to exit. This prevents you constantly having to manually lock and unlock the cat flap if you want to keep your cats in at night.

- You can also set up outdoor runs for your cat, or cat proof your garden, therefore allowing your cats to have limited outdoor access, and possibly the best of both worlds. However, this is expensive, and no system is ever 100% foolproof.

- If you want to use a tracking device on your cat's collar, in order to find them more easily, all the trackers on the market are currently flawed. GPS devices are currently too big and heavy for all but the larger cats. You will also have to remember to change the batteries every night. Radio trackers like the Loc8tor are practical, but the range is non-existent. I can understand why they might be useful if you have an indoor only cat, and you want to work out where they are before you open the front door, for example... but if you are looking for a device which allows you to track your outdoor access cat, think again.

- If you have any pets at all, it is important to call your local council ASAP and check what their policy is regarding dead animals. The only thing worse than a dead pet is a pet who has died and simply been disposed of, because then you will never know. Living in limbo is really awful. Some councils are really good... they scan dead animals for chips, photograph them, and even keep the bodies for a period of time for you to pick up. Other councils simply toss dead animals into the nearest bin without even checking for a collar or making a dead pet report (I know this first hand). Call your local council ASAP and if their policy stinks... pressure them to change it! Complain in writing, get your local MP involved, sign online petitions, and contact local newspapers. Policy must change.

- Cat's Protection have an excellent resource here on indoor and outdoor cats: http://www.cats.org.uk/uploads/documents/cat-care-leaflets-2013/EG12_Indoor_and_outdoor_cats.pdf

- Also, see this site: http://www.infopet.co.uk/pages/0173.htm

- Indoor cats do not wear their claws down in the same way as outdoor access cats (no, not even with scratching posts), so you will have to continuously clip their claws. You could also try softpaws, which cover the claws. Some people in America actually declaw their cats to prevent scratching... they remove the bottom set of toe bones, which leaves the cat vulnerable to attack, in constant pain when it walks, and more likely to bite (the only way it can defend itself). This is illegal here.

- If you do have outdoor access cats, it is polite to inform your neighbors of this. This also means that they can look out for your cat. You might consider setting up an outdoor kitty toilet in your garden, if you have the space. This involves digging over a space which is secluded, where the cat can feel secure, and scattering it with sand and a little bit of kitten attract litter. Keep digging it over and keeping it clean so that the cat is less likely to go in your neighbor's garden. If your neighbors like to feed the birds, suggest that they get a feeder which is suspended from a wire, rather than a feeder on a base, which is easier for the cat to climb. If they don't want your cat in the garden at all, and they have no other pets, ultrasonic devices which are set up to detect movement and emit a pulse of high frequency noise which humans cannot hear can be used. The RSPB sells these online. They could even buy a device which sprays intruders with water, although they would have to turn those on and off when they wanted to access the garden. These devices also deter foxes... bonus!

- People who have never owned an outdoor access cat often seem to be under the impression that such cats roam for long distances and stay outside for long periods of time. This is totally false. The Secret Life of Cats project revealed that outdoor access cats spend the vast majority of their time within a 1 house radius of your home. They are good at hiding, so you probably don't see them... but they are there! If they are not within a 1 house radius, they are probably within a 5 house radius... they usually have a territory which is up to 100m across, and a maximum roaming range of about 300m. Once they are moved, or forced to move, around 300m or more from their home, they become displaced, and often struggle to return home. However, they are probably still close by. Most missing cats who are returned to their owners after a period of months, or even years, are still found within a mile of their homes. Cats simply do not roam far... even the cat with the biggest roaming range on the Secret Life of Cats project only had a range of 1.7km... and that was because his home was surrounded by woodland which was full of mice and rats. Urban cats have a much smaller range, and stay closer to home.

- The biggest threat to indoor only cats is complacence. So many times, you read these websites and people say "I didn't make my missing cat wear a collar, because she is indoor only" or "I didn't neuter him, because he is indoor only". It's really problematic, especially when it comes to vaccinations. Animals survive through herd immunity. Just because your cat is indoor only, it doesn't mean that diseases aren't entering your home... on your clothes, your food, and everything else. It is also really short sighted to say what I see a lot of US pet owners saying: that the owners of outdoor access cats are the problem. For example: I remember one story where a woman had two female, indoor only cats. One day, one of her cats saw a rival cat outside the window and went nuts, attacking its companion. The owner blamed the owner of the outdoor access cat, which was completely unfair, in my opinion. That owner could have had perfectly legitimate reasons for allowing their animal outside. You just don't know. Anyway, it transpired that this lady's two cats weren't neutered... because they were both female and (you've guessed it) indoor only. One of them was approaching the age of full sexual maturity (around the age of 2), the age at which territorial behavior can change. Sure, seeing a rival cat pulled the trigger on the situation, but the rival cat didn't load the gun. The gun was loaded by failure to neuter, combined with unfortunate timing. What I'm saying is that owners need to look a bit closer to home before blaming others.

Personal Considerations when Making a Decision

- The health of the cat. Elderly cats and physically or mentally disabled cats do better as indoor only cats. Stressed or nervous cats do better as outdoor access cats.

- The location of your house. Are you near a dangerous road? Near heavy industry? Weigh up the risks of your immediate environment.

- Take veterinary advice. See what local people do, what the vet recommends, and why.

- Neighbors. Most people love animals and would not hurt your cat... but if you have some psycho neighbors who enjoy shooting cats with an air gun, or who have a dangerous and uncontrollable dog living in the garden, you may want to keep your cat indoors.

- Country or city... someone mentioned this to me before. The difference between the two can be counter-intuitive. For example, your pets are more at risk from foxes in the city, not the country. There are more urban foxes in this country than rural ones. Urban foxes also tend to be larger, and more aggressive... much more dangerous. You do get disease ridden feral cat colonies in the country, and not the city, but this isn't really an issue either, provided you vaccinate your cat and treat them for parasites. The biggest risk a feral colony poses is probably that, if your cat does go missing, people will assume they are a feral, and not return them to you. Then there's farmers... country people are more likely to own guns. The weapon of choice is a shotgun, for obvious reasons. As shotguns fire a cone shaped spray of shot, it is much harder to miss that tasty, organic bird or rabbit you have been shooting at. However, it is also easier to accidentally clip a cat you didn't notice with some of the shot. For me though... the biggest risk in the country is traffic. High speed limits, low visibility, two way roads on tracks only wide enough for one car at a time, confusing road markings, and a lack of streetlighting, all contribute to make rural roads some of the most dangerous in the UK. 66% of all human vehicular fatalities occur on rural roads... only around 10% occur on motorways. Just because rural roads have fewer cars does not mean that they are less dangerous... in fact, the reverse could be true. Personally, I would love to see 40MPH speed limits on all rural roads... certainly all single track ones... but I don't think it's going to happen any time soon.

- Random factors... this is not an exhaustive list! This decision requires careful thought. You are the best judge of your own circumstances.

PLEASE, PLEASE, PLEASE, don't just decide and assume you are done with your decision. Monitor the situation and be prepared to take action if needs be. If you want to make an indoor only into an outdoor access cat, follow the leash procedure I described above for kittens. If you want to restrict an outdoor access cat to the indoors, this is much harder, and is best done slowly, by locking them indoors for a bit longer every day.

EDIT: There is also an excellent web page on this topic here http://www.harpsie.com/indoor_outdoor_cats.htm